South Africa essays

South Africa essays South Africa is the southernmost part of the continent of Africa. It is one of the earth's oldest and stable landmasses. This is why there are no folded mountain ranges. The only mountain ranges that are similar to that kind of range, would be those in the southern tip. This is where the north-south ranges meet an east-west range in the Paarl area. The rest of the country has been slightly pitted so that interior lakes like the Okovango Delta have no outlet to the sea. Most of the country is at an elevation of 3,000 to 6,500 feet above sea level. South Africa lies north of 35 S latitude and is surrounded on three sides by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. Two large high-pressure areas control the weather in South Africa brought over by both of the oceans, in the winter a belt of depressions moves northward to bring rains to the south. During the summer moist tropical air masses migrate southward, bringing frequent thunderstorms. There are not many rivers in South Africa, and those few are not navigable. The unpredictable rainfall makes drought in the areas a very common problem. The towns and cities cannot depend on a consistent source of water for the year. Water supplies for both the town and the country must be very well planned, so there is no drought. Wells are usually the source for irrigation and general water supply in the countryside, however the urban and industrialized areas need the use of dams. On the major rivers of South Africa it is easy to see many of the plus 360 dams that have been built. These are easily found on the Orange, Vaal, Limpopo, and the Tugela rivers. Many of the dams provide hydroelectric power to the national electricity grid. Located on the upper Orange River are two of the largest dams in South Africa. The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was developed to supply water to the Transvaal industrial area by mid 1990's. Even though there are an abundant amount of dams in the country, t...

How to Pronounce Italian American Surnames

How to Pronounce Italian American Surnames Everyone knows how to pronounce their last name, right? Since surnames are obviously a point of pride, its not hard to understand why families would insist on pronouncing them a certain way. But second- and third-generation Italian Americans who have little or no knowledge of Italian are often unaware of how to correctly pronounce their last names, resulting in anglicized versions that bear little aural resemblance to the original, intended form. Thats Not Italian In popular culture, on TV, in movies, and radio, Italian surnames are frequently mispronounced. Endings are truncated, extra syllables are added where none exist, and vowels are barely mouthed. Its no wonder, then, that many Italian Americans cannot pronounce their last names the way their forefathers did. If you cringe when hearing Italian words mispronounced, are interested in how your surname was meant to be pronounced in the original language, or want to recognize your own last name when spoken by a native Italian, there are a few simple rules to follow. When Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel sang, in the 1969 Grammy Awards Record of the Year song Mrs. Robinson, Where have you gone, Joe DiMaggio? they turned the Yankee Hall of Famers last name into four syllables. In fact, the Italian pronunciation should be dee-MAH-joh. In 2005, amidst the blanket media coverage of the Terri Schiavo case (brain-dead and in a coma, her husband went to court to have her taken off life support) the American media persisted in pronouncing her last name as SHY-vo, which to Italian speakers sounded very wrong. The correct pronunciation is skee-AH-voh. There are many other examples in which no attempt is made for even a close approximation of standard Italian pronunciation, which has lead to the spread of careless sounding out of Italian last names. Ironically, in Italy native Italian speakers struggle with the same dilemma of whether to pronounce surnames on the grounds of nationality (i.e., to italicize a last name) or on the basis of the origin of the surname. The Correct Way If many English speakers cannot seem to pronounce Italian last names correctly, how can you avoid common pronunciation mistakes in Italian? Remember that Italian is a phonetic language, which means words are usually pronounced as they are written. Determine how to break down your surname into syllables and learn how to pronounce Italian consonants and vowels. Ask a native Italian or someone fluent in the language how to pronounce your cognome italiano, or post a message on the forums such as: How to pronounce the surname Lucania correctly (hint: its not loo-KA-nia, or loo-CHA-nia, but loo-KAH-nee-ah). At some point, the linguistic clouds will part, and youll be able to pronounce your Italian last name as it was meant to be. Stumbling, Mumbling Pronunciation There are a few letter combinations in Italian that frequently trip up even the most assiduous speaker, and lead to the mangled pronunciation of last names. For example, Albert Ghiorso was the co-discoverer of a number of chemical elements. But pronouncing the surname Ghiorso shouldnt require a Ph.D. in chemistry. The scientists last name is not enunciated gee-OHR-so but rather ghee-OR-soh. Other potential tongue-twisters include double consonants, ch, gh, and the ever-tricky gli. Master these articulation challenges, and youll sound like a native when pronouncing memorable Italian last names such as: Pandimiglio, Schiaparelli, Squarcialupi, and Tagliaferro.

Issue of civil liability under 42 U.S.C. section 1983 Essay

Issue of civil liability under 42 U.S.C. section 1983 - Essay Example Besides civil liability, this study also intends to address qualified immunity, a decree whose role encompasses shielding all state’s agents like police while executing respective mandates. The fact that it was impractical for all aggrieved parties to present individual claims touching on incurred damages directly to the constitution, it is therefore a requirement that such people result to own lawsuits only achievable through section 1983 (Huth & Cavico, n.d). Besides availing tangible legal remedies more so in terms of monetary damages, this section is essential in predicting the attorney’s fee recovery (Huth & Cavico, n.d). In addition, the affected has the opportunity of lodging complaints with the local citizen complaint board. This is especially when respective state’s agents (police) fail in executing required measures as agreed upon with the aggrieved. In this section, its core intention encompasses granting the aggrieved ample platform meant to sue anybody who in anyway prompted the affected not enjoying certain entitled constitutional privileges (Jail House Lawyer’s handbook, 2010). Therefore, it acts, as a shield whose intention encompasses addressing cases that a certain state agent has acted inappropriately to the extent; the affected did not enjoy his or her privileges. Hence, granting a person an opportunity to express oneself besides enjoying other privileges availed by enactments that allow him or her to embrace his or her creed of choice and other aspects. This is without any instances of seizure, unjustifiable castigations that eventually yield to internment. Studies contend absolute immunity encompasses shunning any incidences of state’s agents being liable for unjustifiable criminal prosecutions and lawsuits. However, this immunity is only active and recognizable when the state’s staff acts accordingly and within limits of one’s duties. Hence, implying if he or she goes off the agreed and set

Global warming Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Global warming - Research Paper Example This phenomenon can be perceived as an increase in the average temperature on earth’s surface, which is caused by the emission of various gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc due the burning of fossil fuels. In the modern world, technological developments have added pace and diversity to the process of industrialization, which causes the release of toxic gases into the atmosphere. The adverse effects of technology can be seen in urbanization also, which entails deforestation and the consequent negative impact on the environment. Besides, the increasing number of vehicles also contributes to aggravate the problem as it results in massive emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Evidence suggests that â€Å"about three-fourths of the carbon dioxide added to the air comes from burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal,† which are primarily used in industries and transportation (Kowalski 2004 pg 12). Similarly, deforestation, which occurs mainly a s a result of urbanization, also causes voluminous release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Thus, it becomes apparent that human actions, to a great extent, contribute to major changes in the climate of earth. Global warming, in simple terms, can be defined as the â€Å"continuing increase in Earth’s overall temperature† (Farrar 2008 pg 7). ... This remains a major concern in the modern world as it has far reaching negative repercussions on the environment, which, in turn, will adversely affect the life on earth. Therefore, this research mainly focuses on three research questions as under: - i) What causes the occurrence of the condition known as Global Warming? ii) What are the effects of Global Warming? iii) What can the humans do to effectively resolve the problem? The researcher has attempted to address these questions through the following literature review, which takes into consideration the available evidence in published books, internet articles etc. Review of Literature (Definition of the Problem): Global Warming, as stated earlier, is an increase in the surface temperature of the earth. Research studies indicate that on an average, the surface temperature of planet earth has increased by nearly â€Å"1.4 degrees Fahrenheit (0.76 degrees C) in the last 150 years (Farrar 2008 pg 7). However, the same study also cla ims that some places have registered the rise in temperature as high as 5 degrees Fahrenheit or 2.8 degrees C. While almost 99% of earth’s atmosphere comprises of nitrogen and oxygen, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone constitute the remaining 1%. The problem arises from the fact that these greenhouse gases retain the heat in the atmosphere, which is essential for humans and other living beings on earth to stay warm and to escape from freezing cold. However, when fossil fuels such as oil and coal are burnt, large volumes of gases get released into earth’s atmosphere. The presence of such emissions will mean increased capacity of air to store heat, which will enhance the heat in the atmosphere.

Comparing the Life of Tennessee Williams and Glass Menagerie Essay

Parallels in the Life of Tennessee Williams and The Glass Menagerie   Ã‚  Ã‚   Tennessee Williams is one the major writers of the mid-twentieth century. His work includes the plays, The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar Named Desire. One theme of The Glass Menagerie is that hopeful aspirations are followed by inevitable disappointments. This theme is common throughout all of Williams' work and throughout his own life as well. It is shown through the use of symbols and characters.    "I have only one major theme for my work, which is the destructive impact of society on the sensitive non-conformist individual (Williams Netscape)." Symbols help to show the dreams and desires that the characters long for and also the restrictions that keep them from fulfilling those dreams. In The Glass Menagerie, the fire escape symbolizes the way for Amanda Wingfield to bring a man into the house to save her and her daughter. To Tom, the fire escape is a means of escape from the house that traps him- a path to the outside world (Susquehanna. "New Critical"). Rainbows in The Glass Menagerie symbolize hope and are associated with hopeful situations (Susquehanna. "New Critical.) When Tom Wingfield receives a rainbow-colored scarf at the magic show, he is amazed at the fact it turned a bowl of goldfish into flying canaries. Just like the canaries, Tom hopes to fly away- fly away to escape his imprisonment (Susquehanna. "New Critical"). At the end of the play when Tom looks at the "pi eces of colored glass, like bits of a shattered rainbow (Williams 137)", he remembers that he has left his sister behind and prays that he will be able to move on without her. Even though the rainbows appear to be positive signs throughout the book, they eventually all... ...s something they can relate to. His honesty through his writings brings hope to people looking for it.    Works Cited Haley, Darryl. "Certain Moral Values: A Rhetoric of Outcasts in the Plays of Tennessee Wililiams." 1997 < http://www.angelfire.com/al/haley002/Proctectus.html > Susquehanna University. "New Critical." Online Posting. < http://www.susqu.edu/ac_depts/arts_sci/english/lharris/class/williams/new.htm > Susquehanna University. "Biographical Criticism." Online Posting. < http://www.susqu.edu/ac_depts/arts_sci/english/lharris/class/williams/auto.htm > "Biography of Tennessee Williams : Playwright, Poet, and Screenwriter." American Decades CDROM 1.0. Detroit: Gale Research, 1998 Weales, Geralt. "Tennessee Williams." Scribner Writer Series, Comprehensive Edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1997.

Brazil and India Essay

Since mid 1970s, East Asia and Latin America with specific references to India and Brazil respectively have recorded tremendous growth in their Human Development Index score. It is only the African continent that has lagged behind in issues of social justice, development and globalization due to poor governance, overdependence on donor support and the low life expectancy due to the effect of HIV/AIDS. A considerable growth of India in terms of globalization and improved economy has been noted in the last two decades. By 1900, the United States had become a member of the economic core, while Brazil remained mired in the semi-periphery (DeWitt, pp. 4-10). Factors of consideration in the measurement of human development of a particular nation that include life expectancy, adult literacy and the purchasing power parity (PPT) indicate that these two nations have moved a notch higher on the HDI scale. These nations have also noted a considerable improvement in other matters such as gender equality, respect for human rights and political and social freedoms. According to Human Development Report, the Human Development Index for India is 0. 169. This gives the country a rank of 128th out of 177 with data. This indicates that India has recorded positive changes in its HDI ranking. A deeper examination of important issues related to the well being of people such as income gives a better understanding on how a country’s level of development can be tracked. Relations between Brazil and India seem to be blooming recently, favored by a mix of domestic and international developments. Together with an expanded terrain of common interests in multilateral political and economic matters, both countries share the trend of perceiving bilateralism as a stimulating and useful learning process (Mo’nica, pp. 143-164). India and Brazil can no longer qualify to be graded as developing nations. Gender issues in India that involve deeper understanding of the dissimilarities between different sexes, male and female reveal an improved overall rating. The allocation of natural resources, job opportunities and responsibilities provide an indication on how incentives and rewards are given in relation to gender. The existences of institutions that champion for gender equality have recorded improved achievements in their goals. India has taken much consideration on special and practical needs of women. The constitutions of India and Brazil have gender and equality in their introductory statements and further enshrined in the different sections of the constitutions. Further constitutional amendments and reforms have been undertaken in the years to level the playing field in terms of available opportunities for both sexes. The ratification of a number of international conventions and human rights aimed at appreciating the role of women in society indicate India’s record in matters of social justice. A good example is the ratification of the 1993 convention on elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. Furthermore, the number of women in India joining panchayats has been growing by the year. The 1993 constitutional amendment that requires that a third of those elected to the local governing authorities be women is a clear indication that India has taken gender issues seriously. National policy on women empowerment in 2001 is specifically geared towards empowering women from the grassroots level. 2. 0 Brazil and India: Developed or developing? 2. 1 India as a Developed Nation The Indian economy has always been on the upward surge and the reality that it is a part of the developed world cannot be brushed aside. Indian economy has recorded a 6-7 per cent growth and in the last three years achieved an average growth rate of 8 per cent (Mo’nica, pp. 101-145). Further increase in these figures is very possible considering that India still has opportunities for the improvement in its infrastructure, agriculture and the service industry. It is projected that if this trend continues or accelerated further, India is capable of doubling its GDP within the next 10 years. Globalization Immense improvement in trade systems and the measure of inflow of capital are to the benefit of India. The concept of globalization that has made trade easier and led to the â€Å"death of distance† has contributed significantly to trade, immigration and development issues in India. The dynamics of a global economy is being reshaped by the economic emergence of two Asian giants, China and India. How the world’s two most populous countries manage globalization as they pursue economic reform and liberalization will impact significantly their societies, the rest of Asia, and the world (Kelly, Rajan and Goh, pp. 10-15). While factors of endowments such as land, capital and labor were used as yardsticks for measuring the strength of countries and economy, today globalization has brought about other important factors such as political and institutional reforms. The determination of the country’s income flow is predominantly based on the demand of its products, services and natural resources by other countries. India has grabbed this window of trade opportunity by reforming its industrial sector and coming up with products and services that are demanded all over the globe. Increased business activities have led to the modernization of India’s ports, airports and railway system. Such infrastructural development has contributed to the improved Human Development Index thus making India a member club of the developed nations. The drastic shift from production of labor intensive crops to primary commodities has made India an ideal example of an industrialized nation. Furthermore the utilization of the service sector that includes transport, banking, construction, public administration and security and radical reforms contributed significantly to its higher standings. The advancement in the information and communication technology sector and constitutional freedoms to access to information have facilitated a robust and informed elite of businessmen and businesswomen from India with knowledge on the understanding of world’s economy and global trade. The availability of skilled labor in the human resource sector of an economy is a determinant on the level of a country’s overall growth in the knowledge-based sector service. This sector is one of the most essential as globalization and its aspects demands constant supply of professional and technical services for the various segments of the economy. India is a global leader in the supply of this crucial sector of development and is at the top position for global consultations and migration of physicians and medical personnel to other parts of the world including the United States and the United Kingdom. India has extensively made use of the decrease in price tariffs in the transport and communication sector due to globalization. The development of the containerization has made the world a global village and thus distances do not matter. The use of internet and cheap telephone calls has furthermore simplified trade deals. India has effectively made use of these sectors thereby maximizing the advantages that come along with them. Furthermore, grading India as a developing nation is failing to live with the reality that development in human index is based on many factors that change from time to time and may then take a long period to discover. India has had a long walk in this area and as such has recorded big advancement in its sectors of economy making it one of the giant economies in Asia. Globalization has thus contributed not only to the economy but also to the service sector. Understanding that a country does not have to rely on the productions of cheap products to record growth and that related products such as productions of flash-disks or hard-disk drives for use in computers manufactured in another country can create a significant shift from the traditional forms of trade beliefs. Advantages taken in skills to adapt to changes in the global trade has cushioned India from the adverse effects of shifting and constantly insecure changes in the major world economy. Managerial competence and technical know-how have been used in India to advance its service sector of the economy. Measures regarding the integration of Asian financial market and further trade and regional cooperation are likely to work the advantage of India’s economy and its improvement on human development index standings. Social Justice Health indicators show that India has almost achieved the effort of completely bringing polio to eradication due to reforms in its health sector. Free information and drug dispensing has contributed to sharp decline in Tuberculosis and the provision of generic drugs from its pharmaceutical industries has helped keep the prevalence of HIV/AIDS to below one percent. The efficient management of programs such as the National Aids Control Programs revised, National Tuberculosis program and the National Polio Eradication Program have given more support to efforts directed at controlling the adverse effects of these diseases. Sub-Saharan Africa has suffered massively due to the effects of HIV/AIDS and thus has a long way before joining the club of developed nations. Furthermore, India has made remarkable inroads towards the achievement of a universal primary education program. The 2001 Sarva Shirksha Abhiyan (SSA) elementary education program by the education sector has made access to school by the poor record commendable improvement. The emissions of greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide (CO2) have made the world to rethink and provide tangible solutions to save the future generations. India and its industry contribute to 4. 6% of global emission – an average of 1. 2 tones of carbon dioxide per person. This is a testimony that India is an industrialized nation and thus a contributor to world toxic carbons. However, India is signatory and has gone ahead to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. This provides an indicator on its position as an economic giant and its concern for the environment and the future generations. Its readiness to cut back its emissions shows a fully informed nation prepared to change its industry sector and adopt safer systems of manufacturing and engaging in industrial activities that pollute the atmosphere. The birth of India as a secular nation was realized in 1947 with the divisions of two of its large lands into an Islamic nation, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The eastern part of India always referred to as East Pakistan later became to be known as Bangladesh. Freedom of religion is deeply enshrined in its contribution and its preamble describes India as a secular nation. The top government officials of India are composed of individuals with different religion backgrounds. It has had an instance of a Hindu president, a Sikh prime minister, a Christian leader of congress party a defense minister who is a catholic and a Muslim vice president. This shows that India has attained a level in which leadership positions do not take care of religious background but integration of these different religious achieved by the realization of a common state. Religious tolerance and the freedom to equally exercise religion publicly is an indicator on the level of democracy. 2. 2 Brazil as a Developed Nation The democratization process in Brazil has accelerated so fast. Politically Brazil is emerging as a centre for democracy after year of military dictatorships associated with violations of human rights and denial of political freedoms. The election of a civilian president through the electoral vote system formed a foundation for the beginning of democratization process (Hanashiro, pp. 103- 105). Furthermore, Brazil has excellent relationships with other countries all over the world and does not involve itself in actions that undermine the sovereignty of other institutions. Its is today considered one of the pillars of democracy in Latin America and an invitation to join the Group eight most industrialized and developed nations is an indicator as to the confidence other countries bestow on Brazil in terms of its governance records, social justice, development index and other related factors. The civil society in Brazil is a vibrant sector that keeps the government in tracks on matters related to human rights and justice. While there have cases in which human rights abuse have been recorded, the rate at which this improvement has taken place must be appreciated. With a staggering population of over 140 million people, the authorities must face serious challenges of dealing with crime and providing measures that limit excess use of force in dealing with radical elements. Brazil has had significant improvement in the creation of political space. The existence of different political parties and organizations championing for political space or freedom is a clear indicator that serious changes have taken place. The constitution of Brazil has democracy issues in its pre-amble and further defines the importance of democratic space, freedom of association and achievement of full potential and happiness in its contents. Protection of citizens and individuals regardless of their political associations is a further indicator of its commitment to being not only a politically stable country but also a nation that upholds the rule of law and justice to all its populace. Brazil is a major player in the production of many products. Through its manufacturing industries, Brazil produces automobiles, computers, aircrafts and boasts of a nuclear reactor. Development structures are ever on the increase and a standing example is the solution of the problem of acute shortage of petrol globally between 1973 and 1980. It achieved a commendable success by switching from the conventional and traditional use of petroleum to the use of renewable source of energy for its automobile industry. It does has recorded a major contribution towards cutting down of green gases and carbon dioxide (CO2) because of the use of sugar and alcohol to drive these domestically manufactured hybrid cars and automobiles. This success in alternative energy development means that Brazil’s economy can move forward even in cases of acute shortage of petroleum and its products. The development of the aerospace industry is another boost for the development of Brazil as a developed nation. It is a manufacturer of aircrafts and spare parts of these machines that are then sold to more than 40 countries worldwide today. These aircrafts meets the international standards of air safety and come at competitive prices in comparison to those manufactured in Europe. The construction industry in Brazil is recognized worldwide and notably in Latin America with contracts in Africa and Asia. Construction of dams, expansion of the road network, building of houses, airports and ports are carried out by engineers and professionals trained in Brazil and by construction firms registered and chartered by the Brazilians themselves. They can still explore the impact of five policy areas on employment creation: macroeconomic policy, trade liberalization, foreign direct investment, labor market regulations and policies, and social dialogue (Auer and Ernst, pp. 223-239). Furthermore, development in other sectors of the economy is likely to take place as there is still a big opportunity for development. The existence of a sophisticated information communication and technology is a clear sign of its thirst for a faster achievement of its development goals by the application of modern methods. Brazil boosts of an excellent system of communication where all people have the freedom of access to information and as such is a pillar of development in Latin America. Trade with other nations has gone high since 1990 due to production of quality products that creates demand thereby promoting the local based industries. The quick application and encouragement of use of modern methods of transport and communication has accelerated the speed at which Brazil can be said to be globalized. Tourism in Brazil has overtaken many tourist destinations and countries all over the world. In Latin American, Brazil has the best tourist sports such as beautiful beaches of Rio de Janeiro, the eastern ports of Fortaleza and its all the year summer attract tourists from all over the globe. Presence of the Iguacu Falls at the boarder with Argentina offers a unique and spectacular view that cannot be compared to any spot in the world. The constitution of Brazil further provides for the respect of religion practice and upholds the freedom of religion. There are no double standards in cases of religion and all citizens irrespective of their religion affiliations are considered equal. Its laws go further in prohibiting all forms of discrimination based on religion. It is one of the religious democratic countries that do not demand registration of a religious group. In the recent two centuries, there have never been open reports of arrests and detention of religious leaders or stakeholders. 3. 0 Conclusion Economic achievements of India and Brazil for the past three decades qualify them to join the club of developed nations. Respect for human rights, rule of law and order, industrialization, research in fields of health and information and communication technology confirm this statement. Further achievement in the provision of universal primary education, gender equality and availability of job opportunities are further indicators. The invitation of these two nations together with Japan and Germany attest further proof to the confidence of the world in the institutions and governance. Brazil and India thus qualify to be developed nations. References: Auer, P. and Ernst, C. , Meeting the Employment Challenge: Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico in the Global Economy. ISBN 9221179478, 9789221179474, International Labor Organization, pp. 4-6 (2006) DeWitt, J. , Early globalization and the Economic Development of the United States and Brazil. ISBN 0275971996, 9780275971991, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. Hanashiro, O. , Democratizing State and Civil Society in Brazil. 43 (3), pp. 103-105, (2000) Kelly, D. A. , Rajan, R. S. and Goh, G. H. L. , Managing globalization: lessons from China and India: inaugural conference of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. ISBN 9812564942, 9789812564948, Published by World Scientific, (2006) Mo’nica, H. , Brazil–India Relations, South Asian Survey, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 143-164 (2008)

Word Choice in English Composition and Literature

The words a writer chooses are the building materials from which he or she constructs any given piece of writing—from a poem to a speech to a thesis on thermonuclear dynamics. Strong, carefully chosen words (also known as diction) ensure that the finished work is cohesive and imparts the meaning or information the author intended. Weak word choice creates confusion and dooms a writers work either to fall short of expectations or fail to make its point entirely. Factors That Influence Good Word Choice When selecting words to achieve the maximum desired effect, a writer must take a number of factors into consideration: Meaning: Words can be chosen for either their denotative meaning, which is the definition youd find in a dictionary or the connotative meaning, which is the emotions, circumstances, or descriptive variations the word evokes.Specificity: Words that are concrete rather than abstract are more powerful in certain types of writing, specifically academic works and works of nonfiction. However, abstract words can be powerful tools when creating poetry, fiction, or persuasive rhetoric.Audience: Whether the writer seeks to engage, amuse, entertain, inform, or even incite anger, the audience is the person or persons for whom a piece of work is intended.Level of Diction: The level of diction an author chooses directly relates to the intended audience. Diction is classified into four levels of language: Formal which denotes serious  discourseInformal which denotes relaxed but polite conversationColloquial which denotes language in everyday usageSlang which denotes new, often highly informal words and phrases that evolve as a result sociolinguistic constructs such as age, class, wealth status, ethnicity, nationality, and regional dialects. Tone: Tone is an authors attitude toward a topic. When employed effectively, tone—be it contempt, awe, agreement, or outrage—is a powerful tool that writers use to achieve a desired goal or purpose.Style: Word choice is an essential  element in the style of any writer. While his or her audience may play a role in the stylistic choices a writer makes, style is the unique voice that sets one writer apart from another. The Appropriate Words for a Given Audience To be effective, a writer must choose words based on a number of factors that relate directly to the audience for whom a piece of work is intended. For example, the language chosen for a dissertation on advanced algebra would not only contain jargon specific to that field of study; the writer would also have the expectation that the intended reader possessed an advanced level of understanding in the given subject matter that at a minimum equaled, or potentially outpaced his or her own. On the other hand, an author writing a childrens book would choose age-appropriate words that kids could understand and relate to. Likewise, while a contemporary playwright is likely to use slang and colloquialism to connect with the audience, an art historian would likely use more formal language to describe a piece of work about which he or she is writing, especially if the intended audience is a peer or academic group. Choosing words that are too difficult, too technical, or too easy for your receiver can be a communication barrier. If words are too difficult or too technical, the receiver may not understand them; if words are too simple, the reader could become bored or be insulted. In either case, ​the message falls short of meeting its goals . . . Word choice is  also a consideration when communicating with receivers for whom English is not the primary language [who] may not be familiar with colloquial English. (From Business Communication, 8th Edition, by A.C. Krizan, Patricia Merrier, Joyce P. Logan, and Karen Williams. South-Western Cengage, 2011) Word Selection for Composition Word choice is an essential element for any student learning to write effectively. Appropriate word choice allows students to display their knowledge, not just about English, but with regard to any given field of study from science and mathematics to civics and history. Fast Facts: Six Principles of Word Choice for Composition Choose understandable words.Use specific, precise words.Choose strong words.Emphasize positive words.Avoid overused words.Avoid obsolete words.(Adapted from Business Communication, 8th Edition, by A.C. Krizan, Patricia Merrier, Joyce P. Logan, and Karen Williams. South-Western Cengage, 2011) The challenge for teachers of composition is to help students understand the reasoning behind the specific word choices theyve made and then letting the students know whether or not those choices work. Simply telling a student something doesnt make sense or is awkwardly phrased wont help that student become a better writer. If a students word choice is weak, inaccurate, or clichà ©d, a good teacher will not only explain how they went wrong but ask the student to rethink his or her choices based on the given feedback. Word Choice for Literature Arguably, choosing effective words when writing literature is more complicated than choosing words for composition writing. First, a writer must consider the constraints for the chosen discipline in which they are writing. Since literary pursuits as such as poetry and fiction can be broken down into an almost endless variety of niches, genres, and subgenres, this alone can be daunting. In addition, writers must also be able to distinguish themselves from other writers by selecting a vocabulary that creates and sustains a style that is authentic to their own voice. When writing for a literary audience, individual taste is yet another huge determining factor with regard to which writer a reader considers a good and who they may find intolerable. Thats because good is subjective. For example, William Faulker and Ernest Hemmingway were both considered giants of 20th-century American literature, and yet their styles of writing could not be more different. Someone who adores Faulkners languorous stream-of-consciousness style may disdain Hemmingways spare, staccato, unembellished prose, and vice versa.